Villa felt further betrayed when he discovered that the United States was secretly helping Carranza's troops defeat Villa's fighters and when the United States placed an arms embargo on Villa, cutting off his supply from border towns such as Columbus.
Villa's raid on Columbus, N.M., left 17 Americans dead. Mr. Wilson, preoccupied by a presidential election sent Gen. John Pershing to the border to wage a Punitive Expedition to apprehend Villa -- dead or alive.
Pershing's expedition was "the last of the old and the first of the new," said Louis Ray Sadler, a historian at New Mexico State University in Las Cruces who spoke in the documentary. "This is the last great cavalry operation in the United States Army."
In the largest mobilization of American troops since the Civil War, Pershing stationed 150,000 soldiers along the border from Texas to California. Some 12,000 troops crossed into Mexico, where old technology melded with new.
More than 8,000 horses carried soldiers armed with rifle-mounted bayonets. They were joined by the latest in the U.S. military might: 600 trucks, 250 armored vehicles and eight airplanes.
Mexico and the United States had an agreement allowing law enforcement authorities or military personnel to cross each other's borders to pursue criminals.
"Wilson used this as an excuse for the protracted excursion," Mr. Espinosa said. "Mexico regarded it as an invasion."
The U.S. military was unable to capture or kill Villa. In fact, Mr. Espinosa said, "they never even sighted him, in part because Villa knew the terrain like the back of his hand," while the Americans "ignorant of the geography and culture."
Pershing and other American leaders underestimated the broad base of support that Villa had among the people; they underestimated the difficulty of operating in the harsh northern Mexico desert; and they underestimated the resentment the Mexican people had towards the U.S. presence in their country.
That resentment erupted in several towns where residents attacked and killed U.S. soldiers looking for Villa.
After a fruitless 11-month search for Villa, U.S. military and political leaders were looking for a face-saving way to end the expedition...
― andy-, Tuesday, 11 January 2005 22:04 (twenty years ago)